Conductas elegidas o forzadas a elegir: normas y valores asumidos por los ejecutivos
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Resumen
Esta investigación describe algunos de los valores y las normas que los ejecutivos de empresas utilizan para elegir sus conductas en los entornos laborales, sociales y familiares. Usando metodología cualitativa, la recolección de datos se realizó con el apoyo de la técnica proyectiva denominada “historia de vida”. La codificación y análisis de la técnica aplicada permitió el reporte de normas y valores que se encuentran en uso por los ejecutivos. En esta investigación participaron cincuenta y tres ejecutivos de empresas de distintos sectores. Los análisis muestran que los ejecutivos siguen y alinean sus conductas a normas y valores que demuestran sus membresías con los grupos. Estos lineamientos tienen efectos positivos y, en otros, negativos para sí mismos, su familia, sus compañeros de trabajo y de sus amigos. Entre los primeros, los ejecutivos buscan demostrar y exigir el uso rentable del tiempo, lograr el desarrollo y crecimiento organizacional y alcanzar posiciones de liderazgo. También se observan marcos de referencia para sus conductas con efectos no positivos o ambiguos. Entre estos se muestra que los ejecutivos presentan como normas y valores el estar dispuestos a sacrificar su tiempo familiar por los objetivos de la empresa, tolerar condiciones de maltrato y maltratar, y mantenerse al margen o involucrarse lo menos posible con las personas con las que trabajan. Lo descrito en el estudio podría permitir proponer que los ejecutivos siguen las normas y valores (NV) que perciben como propias y determinantes para demostrar su membresía. Este carácter de exigencia hace que racionalicen y transfieran al exterior la responsabilidad de las consecuencias a sus conductas.
Palabras Clave
Norms, values, decision making, organizational behavior, group membership, group behaviour, rationalization, psychological tests Normas, valores, toma de decisiones, comportamiento organizacional, membresía a grupos, comportamiento grupal, racionalización, test psicológico
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Albanese, G., De Blasio, G., & Sestito, P. (2016). My parents taught Me. Evidence on the family transmission of values. Journal of Population Economics, 29(2), 571–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0574-8
Andrés Guzmán, R., Rodríguez-Sickert, C., & Rowthorn, R. (2007). When in Rome, do as the Romans do: the coevolution of altruistic punishment, conformist learning, and cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(2), 112–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EVOLHUMBEHAV.2006.08.002
Ashforth, B. E., & Kreiner, G. E. (2002). Normalizing emotion in organizations: Making the extraordinary seem ordinary. Human Resource Management Review, 12(2), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00047-5
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2000). You can’t always do what you want: Social identity and self-presentational determinants of the choice to work for a low-status group. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(8), 891–906. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672002610001
Barsade, S. G., & Gibson, D. E. (2007). Why does affect matter in organizations? Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(1), 36–59. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMP.2007.24286163
Beji, R., Yousfi, O., Loukil, N., & Omri, A. (2020). Board Diversity and Corporate Social Responsibility: Empirical Evidence from France. Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04522-4
Bicchieri, C. (2002). Covenants without swords: Group identity, norms, and communication in social dilemmas. Rationality and Society, Vol. 14, pp. 192–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043463102014002003
Bicchieri, C., & Chavez, A. (2010). Behaving as expected: Public information and fairness norms. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.648
Bicchieri, C., & Xiao, E. (2009). Do the right thing: But only if others do so. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 22(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.621
Brown, A. D. (2015). Identities and Identity Work in Organizations. International Journal of Management Reviews, 17(1), 20–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12035
Brown, M. A. (2011). Values - A Necessary but Neglected Ingredient of Motivation on the Job. Academy of Management Review, 1(4), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1976.4396236
Bruhn, J. G. (2009). The functionality of gray area ethics in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(2), 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9994-7
Cambrea, D. R., Tenuta, P., & Vastola, V. (2019). Female directors and corporate cash holdings: monitoring vs executive roles. Management Decision, 58(2), 295–312. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-11-2018-1289
Castro Solano, A., & Nader, M. (2006). La evaluación de los valores humanos con el Portrait Values Questionnaire de Schwartz. Interdisciplinaria, 23(2), 155–174. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/3XRRzYk
Cialdini, R., Li, Y. J., Samper, A., & Wellman, N. (2021). How Bad Apples Promote Bad Barrels: Unethical Leader Behavior and the Selective Attrition Effect. Journal of Business Ethics, 168(4), 861–880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04252-2
Copeland, R., & Potwarka, L. R. (2016). Individual and contextual factors in ethical decision making: A case study of the most significant doping scandal in Canadian university sports history. Sport Management Review, 19(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2015.08.004
Daniel, E., Bilgin, A. S., Brezina, I., Strohmeier, C. E., & Vainre, M. (2015). Values and helping behavior: A study in four cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 50(3), 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12086
Earle, J. S., Spicer, A., & Peter, K. S. (2010). The normalization of deviant organizational practices: Wage arrears in Russia, 1991-98. Academy of Management Journal, 53(2), 218–237. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.49387426
Ellemers, N., Pagliaro, S., & Barreto, M. (2013). Morality and behavioural regulation in groups: A social identity approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 24(1), 160–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2013.841490
Gelbrich, K., Stedham, Y., & Gäthke, D. (2016). Cultural Discrepancy and National Corruption: Investigating the Difference between Cultural Values and Practices and Its Relationship to Corrupt Behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 26, pp. 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2016.29
Gillespie, A., & Cornish, F. (2010). Intersubjectivity: Towards a Dialogical Analysis. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(1), 19–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00419.x
Graham, K. A., Resick, C. J., Margolis, J. A., Shao, P., Hargis, M. B., & Kiker, J. D. (2020). Egoistic norms, organizational identification, and the perceived ethicality of unethical pro-organizational behavior: A moral maturation perspective. Human Relations, 73(9), 1249–1277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726719862851
Hardy, C., & Clegg, S. (2006). Some dare call it power. In The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies (pp. 754–775). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608030.n27
Hauk, E., & Saez-Marti, M. (2002). On the cultural transmission of corruption. Journal of Economic Theory, 107(2), 311–335. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeth.2001.2956
Hsieh, H. H., Hsu, H. H., Kao, K. Y., & Wang, C. C. (2020). Ethical leadership and employee unethical pro-organizational behavior: a moderated mediation model of moral disengagement and coworker ethical behavior. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 41(6), 799–812. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2019-0464
Ibarra-Colado, E., Clegg, S. R., Rhodes, C., & Kornberger, M. (2006). The ethics of managerial subjectivity. Journal of Business Ethics, 64(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-3325-z
Lian, H., Huai, M., Farh, J. L., Huang, J. C., Lee, C., & Chao, M. M. (2020). Leader Unethical Pro-Organizational Behavior and Employee Unethical Conduct: Social Learning of Moral Disengagement as a Behavioral Principle. Journal of Management, XX(16503715), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320959699
Liu, Y., Chen, S., Bell, C., & Tan, J. (2020). How Do Power and Status Differ in Predicting Unethical Decisions? A Cross-National Comparison of China and Canada. Journal of Business Ethics, 167(4), 745–760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04150-7
Maldonado, A. M., & Oliva, A. V. H. (2010). El proceso de construcción de la identidad colectiva. Convergencia, 17(53), 229–251.
Melucci, A., & Massolo, A. (1995). La acción colectiva como construcción social. Estudios Sociológicos, Vol. 9, pp. 357–364. https://doi.org/10.2307/40420123
Miles, M. B., Huberman, M., & Saldaña, J. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook.
Molthan-Hill, P. (2014). The moral muteness of managers: An Anglo-American phenomenon? German and British managers and their moral reasoning about environmental sustainability in business. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(3), 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595814532076
Portuondo, J. (1979). Cuatro técnicas en el test de apercepción temática y la autobiografía como técnica proyectiva. “Textos y Temas Psicológicos”. Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva.
Pozzi, M., Fattori, F., Bocchiaro, P., & Alfieri, S. (2014). Do the right thing! A study on social representation of obedience and disobedience. New Ideas in Psychology, 35, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEWIDEAPSYCH.2014.06.002
Reynoso, D. (2018). Factores del Ethos de ejecutivos: identidad, identificación y diferenciación. Una aproximación teórica. Revista de Investigación En Psicología, 21(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.15381/rinvp.v21i1.15117
Reynoso, D. (2021). Estudio de la intersubjetividad en las interacciones de jefes y subordinados a través de una prueba proyectiva. Revista Científica Pensamiento y Gestión, (51), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.14482/pege.50.658.155
Romero, G. (2011). Principios y valores éticos en las organizaciones bancarias respecto a la calidad del servicio y atención al cliente. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 11(36), 56–74. https://doi.org/10.31876/revista.v11i36.10445
Schuh, S. C., Cai, Y., Kaluza, A. J., Steffens, N. K., David, E. M., & Haslam, A. (2021). Do leaders condone unethical pro-organizational employee behaviors? The complex interplay between leader organizational identification and moral disengagement. Human Resource Management, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22060
Tang, P. M., Yam, K. C., & Koopman, J. (2020). Feeling proud but guilty? Unpacking the paradoxical nature of unethical pro-organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 160(March), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.03.004
Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Unethical behavior in the name of the company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs on unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(4), 769–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019214
Verhezen, P. (2010). Giving Voice in a Culture of Silence. From a Culture of Compliance to a Culture of Integrity. Journal of Business Ethics, 96(2), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0458-5
Weber, M. (2014). (2014). Los tipos de dominación. In Economía y sociedad (Vol. 1, pp. 170–239). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Welsh, D. T., Ordóñez, L. D., Snyder, D. G., & Christian, M. S. (2015). The slippery slope: How small ethical transgressions pave the way for larger future transgressions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036950
White, J., Bandura, A., & Bero, L. A. (2009). Moral disengagement in the corporate world. In Accountability in Research (Vol. 16). https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620802689847
Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management. Academy of Management Review, 14(3), 361–384. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4279067
Zeytinoglu, I. U., Keser, A., Yilmaz, G., Inelmen, K., Özsoy, A., & Uygur, D. (2012). Security in a sea of insecurity: Job security and intention to stay among service sector employees in Turkey. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(13), 2809–2823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.637067
Andrés Guzmán, R., Rodríguez-Sickert, C., & Rowthorn, R. (2007). When in Rome, do as the Romans do: the coevolution of altruistic punishment, conformist learning, and cooperation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(2), 112–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EVOLHUMBEHAV.2006.08.002
Ashforth, B. E., & Kreiner, G. E. (2002). Normalizing emotion in organizations: Making the extraordinary seem ordinary. Human Resource Management Review, 12(2), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00047-5
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2000). You can’t always do what you want: Social identity and self-presentational determinants of the choice to work for a low-status group. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(8), 891–906. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672002610001
Barsade, S. G., & Gibson, D. E. (2007). Why does affect matter in organizations? Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(1), 36–59. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMP.2007.24286163
Beji, R., Yousfi, O., Loukil, N., & Omri, A. (2020). Board Diversity and Corporate Social Responsibility: Empirical Evidence from France. Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-020-04522-4
Bicchieri, C. (2002). Covenants without swords: Group identity, norms, and communication in social dilemmas. Rationality and Society, Vol. 14, pp. 192–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043463102014002003
Bicchieri, C., & Chavez, A. (2010). Behaving as expected: Public information and fairness norms. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 23(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.648
Bicchieri, C., & Xiao, E. (2009). Do the right thing: But only if others do so. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 22(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.621
Brown, A. D. (2015). Identities and Identity Work in Organizations. International Journal of Management Reviews, 17(1), 20–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12035
Brown, M. A. (2011). Values - A Necessary but Neglected Ingredient of Motivation on the Job. Academy of Management Review, 1(4), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1976.4396236
Bruhn, J. G. (2009). The functionality of gray area ethics in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(2), 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9994-7
Cambrea, D. R., Tenuta, P., & Vastola, V. (2019). Female directors and corporate cash holdings: monitoring vs executive roles. Management Decision, 58(2), 295–312. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-11-2018-1289
Castro Solano, A., & Nader, M. (2006). La evaluación de los valores humanos con el Portrait Values Questionnaire de Schwartz. Interdisciplinaria, 23(2), 155–174. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/3XRRzYk
Cialdini, R., Li, Y. J., Samper, A., & Wellman, N. (2021). How Bad Apples Promote Bad Barrels: Unethical Leader Behavior and the Selective Attrition Effect. Journal of Business Ethics, 168(4), 861–880. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04252-2
Copeland, R., & Potwarka, L. R. (2016). Individual and contextual factors in ethical decision making: A case study of the most significant doping scandal in Canadian university sports history. Sport Management Review, 19(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2015.08.004
Daniel, E., Bilgin, A. S., Brezina, I., Strohmeier, C. E., & Vainre, M. (2015). Values and helping behavior: A study in four cultures. International Journal of Psychology, 50(3), 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12086
Earle, J. S., Spicer, A., & Peter, K. S. (2010). The normalization of deviant organizational practices: Wage arrears in Russia, 1991-98. Academy of Management Journal, 53(2), 218–237. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.49387426
Ellemers, N., Pagliaro, S., & Barreto, M. (2013). Morality and behavioural regulation in groups: A social identity approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 24(1), 160–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2013.841490
Gelbrich, K., Stedham, Y., & Gäthke, D. (2016). Cultural Discrepancy and National Corruption: Investigating the Difference between Cultural Values and Practices and Its Relationship to Corrupt Behavior. Business Ethics Quarterly, Vol. 26, pp. 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2016.29
Gillespie, A., & Cornish, F. (2010). Intersubjectivity: Towards a Dialogical Analysis. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(1), 19–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00419.x
Graham, K. A., Resick, C. J., Margolis, J. A., Shao, P., Hargis, M. B., & Kiker, J. D. (2020). Egoistic norms, organizational identification, and the perceived ethicality of unethical pro-organizational behavior: A moral maturation perspective. Human Relations, 73(9), 1249–1277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726719862851
Hardy, C., & Clegg, S. (2006). Some dare call it power. In The SAGE Handbook of Organization Studies (pp. 754–775). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848608030.n27
Hauk, E., & Saez-Marti, M. (2002). On the cultural transmission of corruption. Journal of Economic Theory, 107(2), 311–335. https://doi.org/10.1006/jeth.2001.2956
Hsieh, H. H., Hsu, H. H., Kao, K. Y., & Wang, C. C. (2020). Ethical leadership and employee unethical pro-organizational behavior: a moderated mediation model of moral disengagement and coworker ethical behavior. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 41(6), 799–812. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-10-2019-0464
Ibarra-Colado, E., Clegg, S. R., Rhodes, C., & Kornberger, M. (2006). The ethics of managerial subjectivity. Journal of Business Ethics, 64(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-005-3325-z
Lian, H., Huai, M., Farh, J. L., Huang, J. C., Lee, C., & Chao, M. M. (2020). Leader Unethical Pro-Organizational Behavior and Employee Unethical Conduct: Social Learning of Moral Disengagement as a Behavioral Principle. Journal of Management, XX(16503715), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320959699
Liu, Y., Chen, S., Bell, C., & Tan, J. (2020). How Do Power and Status Differ in Predicting Unethical Decisions? A Cross-National Comparison of China and Canada. Journal of Business Ethics, 167(4), 745–760. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04150-7
Maldonado, A. M., & Oliva, A. V. H. (2010). El proceso de construcción de la identidad colectiva. Convergencia, 17(53), 229–251.
Melucci, A., & Massolo, A. (1995). La acción colectiva como construcción social. Estudios Sociológicos, Vol. 9, pp. 357–364. https://doi.org/10.2307/40420123
Miles, M. B., Huberman, M., & Saldaña, J. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: a methods sourcebook.
Molthan-Hill, P. (2014). The moral muteness of managers: An Anglo-American phenomenon? German and British managers and their moral reasoning about environmental sustainability in business. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(3), 289–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595814532076
Portuondo, J. (1979). Cuatro técnicas en el test de apercepción temática y la autobiografía como técnica proyectiva. “Textos y Temas Psicológicos”. Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva.
Pozzi, M., Fattori, F., Bocchiaro, P., & Alfieri, S. (2014). Do the right thing! A study on social representation of obedience and disobedience. New Ideas in Psychology, 35, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEWIDEAPSYCH.2014.06.002
Reynoso, D. (2018). Factores del Ethos de ejecutivos: identidad, identificación y diferenciación. Una aproximación teórica. Revista de Investigación En Psicología, 21(1), 119. https://doi.org/10.15381/rinvp.v21i1.15117
Reynoso, D. (2021). Estudio de la intersubjetividad en las interacciones de jefes y subordinados a través de una prueba proyectiva. Revista Científica Pensamiento y Gestión, (51), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.14482/pege.50.658.155
Romero, G. (2011). Principios y valores éticos en las organizaciones bancarias respecto a la calidad del servicio y atención al cliente. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 11(36), 56–74. https://doi.org/10.31876/revista.v11i36.10445
Schuh, S. C., Cai, Y., Kaluza, A. J., Steffens, N. K., David, E. M., & Haslam, A. (2021). Do leaders condone unethical pro-organizational employee behaviors? The complex interplay between leader organizational identification and moral disengagement. Human Resource Management, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22060
Tang, P. M., Yam, K. C., & Koopman, J. (2020). Feeling proud but guilty? Unpacking the paradoxical nature of unethical pro-organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 160(March), 68–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.03.004
Umphress, E. E., Bingham, J. B., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Unethical behavior in the name of the company: The moderating effect of organizational identification and positive reciprocity beliefs on unethical pro-organizational behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(4), 769–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019214
Verhezen, P. (2010). Giving Voice in a Culture of Silence. From a Culture of Compliance to a Culture of Integrity. Journal of Business Ethics, 96(2), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0458-5
Weber, M. (2014). (2014). Los tipos de dominación. In Economía y sociedad (Vol. 1, pp. 170–239). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Welsh, D. T., Ordóñez, L. D., Snyder, D. G., & Christian, M. S. (2015). The slippery slope: How small ethical transgressions pave the way for larger future transgressions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036950
White, J., Bandura, A., & Bero, L. A. (2009). Moral disengagement in the corporate world. In Accountability in Research (Vol. 16). https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620802689847
Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Social Cognitive Theory of Organizational Management. Academy of Management Review, 14(3), 361–384. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1989.4279067
Zeytinoglu, I. U., Keser, A., Yilmaz, G., Inelmen, K., Özsoy, A., & Uygur, D. (2012). Security in a sea of insecurity: Job security and intention to stay among service sector employees in Turkey. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(13), 2809–2823. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.637067
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